a b Peter C. Heinrich: Löffler/Petrides Biochemie und Pathobiochemie. Springer-Verlag, 2014, ISBN 978-3-642-17972-3, p.214. (in German) In the chart above you’ll see sugar measured as grams per liter sugar or (g/L). Residual Sugar is usually displayed in 1 of three ways: in grams/Liter, in grams/100ml, or as a percentage. For example, 10 grams per liter of residual sugar is equal to 1 percent sweetness. H. Robert Horton, Laurence A. Moran, K. Gray Scrimgeour, Marc D. Perry, J. David Rawn: Biochemie. Pearson Studium; 4. aktualisierte Auflage 2008; ISBN 978-3-8273-7312-0; p. 490–496. (german)

a b Richard A. Harvey, Denise R. Ferrier: Biochemistry. 5th Edition, Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, 2011, ISBN 978-1-608-31412-6, p.366. The glucopyranose ring (α or β) can assume several non-planar shapes, analogous to the "chair" and "boat" conformations of cyclohexane. Similarly, the glucofuranose ring may assume several shapes, analogous to the "envelope" conformations of cyclopentane. Dandekar, T.; Schuster, S.; Snel, B.; Huynen, M.; Bork, P. (1999). "Pathway alignment: Application to the comparative analysis of glycolytic enzymes". The Biochemical Journal. 343 (1): 115–124. doi: 10.1042/bj3430115. PMC 1220531. PMID 10493919. John F. Robyt: Essentials of Carbohydrate Chemistry. Springer Science & Business Media, 2012, ISBN 978-1-461-21622-3. p. 7. La Fleur, S. E.; Fliers, E.; Kalsbeek, A. (2014). "Neuroscience of glucose homeostasis". Diabetes and the Nervous System. Handbook of Clinical Neurology. Vol.126. pp.341–351. doi: 10.1016/B978-0-444-53480-4.00026-6. ISBN 9780444534804. PMID 25410233. .

But registered dietitian Beth Czerwony, RD, says there’s a natural food that deserves a spot on the list: fruit.

Made by heating sugar. Used as a flavouring or colouring in many different foods, including breakfast cereals. Fulgoni VL, et al. (2017). Association of raisin consumption with nutrientintake, diet quality, and health risk factors in U.S. adults: National Healthand Nutrition Examination Survey 2001-2002. DOI: Snopek L, Mlcek J, Sochorova L, et al. Contribution of red wine consumption to human health protection. Molecules. 2018;23(7):1684. doi:10.3390/molecules23071684

a b c The Amylase Research Society of Japan: Handbook of Amylases and Related Enzymes. Elsevier, 2014, ISBN 978-1-483-29939-6, p.195. Diagnosing Diabetes and Learning About Prediabetes". American Diabetes Association. Archived from the original on 2017-07-28 . Retrieved 2018-02-20. Glucose is produced industrially from starch by enzymatic hydrolysis using glucose amylase or by the use of acids. Enzymatic hydrolysis has largely displaced acid-catalyzed hydrolysis reactions. [104] The result is glucose syrup (enzymatically with more than 90% glucose in the dry matter) [104] with an annual worldwide production volume of 20 million tonnes (as of 2011). [105] This is the reason for the former common name "starch sugar". The amylases most often come from Bacillus licheniformis [106] or Bacillus subtilis (strain MN-385), [106] which are more thermostable than the originally used enzymes. [106] [107] Starting in 1982, pullulanases from Aspergillus niger were used in the production of glucose syrup to convert amylopectin to starch (amylose), thereby increasing the yield of glucose. [108] The reaction is carried out at a pH = 4.6–5.2 and a temperature of 55–60°C. [10] Corn syrup has between 20% and 95% glucose in the dry matter. [109] [110] The Japanese form of the glucose syrup, Mizuame, is made from sweet potato or rice starch. [111] Maltodextrin contains about 20% glucose. In solutions, the open-chain form of glucose (either " D-" or " L-") exists in equilibrium with several cyclic isomers, each containing a ring of carbons closed by one oxygen atom. In aqueous solution, however, more than 99% of glucose molecules exist as pyranose forms. The open-chain form is limited to about 0.25%, and furanose forms exist in negligible amounts. The terms "glucose" and " D-glucose" are generally used for these cyclic forms as well. The ring arises from the open-chain form by an intramolecular nucleophilic addition reaction between the aldehyde group (at C-1) and either the C-4 or C-5 hydroxyl group, forming a hemiacetal linkage, −C(OH)H−O−. Takagi, S.; Jeffrey, G. A. (1979). "1,2-O-isopropylidene-D-glucofuranose". Acta Crystallographica Section B. B35 (6): 1522–1525. doi: 10.1107/S0567740879006968.

Mader, Heike S.; Wolfbeis, Otto S. (2008). "Boronic acid based probes for microdetermination of saccharides and glycosylated biomolecules". Microchimica Acta. 162 (1–2): 1–34. doi: 10.1007/s00604-008-0947-8. S2CID 96768832.Fruits are rich sources of essential vitamins, minerals, and fiber and should be present in every diet. However, people wishing to limit their carbohydrate intake should pay attention to their fruit portion sizes to ensure they do not exceed their carbohydrate goals. Chemistry for Biologists: Photosynthesis". www.rsc.org. Archived from the original on 2016-08-04 . Retrieved 2018-02-05.